Debt & Credit Analysis – Interview Questions for Finance

Corporate debt is commonly issued in three main forms:

• Bank loans are private agreements negotiated directly with banks. They are often shorter-term, more flexible, and may include customized repayment schedules.
• Bonds are issued in public markets, which makes them standardized and tradable. They usually have longer maturities and allow companies to raise larger amounts from a broad investor base.
• Revolving credit facilities, or revolvers, are lines of credit that a company can draw down and repay as needed. These are mainly used for liquidity management and short-term financing.

Debt instruments are ranked by their repayment priority in case of default or bankruptcy. This ranking, called seniority, determines how risky each instrument is for lenders and investors.

• Senior secured debt is backed by collateral and has the first claim on assets, making it the safest form of debt.
• Senior unsecured debt has priority over subordinated claims but is not backed by collateral, so recovery depends only on the company’s general assets.
• Subordinated debt is repaid only after senior creditors have been satisfied, which makes it the riskiest form of debt.

This hierarchy matters because it affects both risk and pricing. Senior secured debt usually carries the lowest interest rates due to high recovery prospects, while subordinated debt requires higher returns to compensate for greater risk.

Covenants are conditions written into loan agreements that are designed to protect lenders and limit risk. They set boundaries on how a company can operate while debt is outstanding.

There are three main types:

• Affirmative covenants are obligations to take certain actions, such as providing regular financial statements or maintaining insurance.
• Negative covenants are restrictions on actions, such as paying dividends, taking on additional debt, or selling key assets.
• Financial covenants are requirements to maintain certain ratios, such as Debt/EBITDA below a specified threshold or Interest Coverage above a minimum level.

Covenants matter because they enforce financial discipline. A breach can lead to renegotiation, higher borrowing costs, or in severe cases, default.

Credit rating agencies such as S&P, Moody’s, and Fitch evaluate a company’s ability to meet its debt obligations. Their assessment is based on a combination of quantitative and qualitative factors.

Key factors include:

• Financial metrics like leverage ratios (e.g. Debt/EBITDA), interest coverage, and cash flow stability.
• Business profile in terms of industry risk, market position, diversification of revenues, and competitive strength.
• Qualitative aspects such as management quality, corporate governance, and regulatory environment.

Ratings matter because they directly influence borrowing costs and access to capital markets. A higher rating (e.g. investment grade) lowers interest rates and broadens the investor base, while a downgrade can increase costs or even shut a company out of markets.

1. Define the metric: Net Debt/EBITDA measures leverage. It approximates how many years it would take to repay net debt using EBITDA (assuming no growth).

2. Calculate net debt: Subtract available cash from total debt to get the true debt burden.

3. Calculate the ratio: Compare net debt to the company’s earnings capacity (EBITDA).

This ratio means that, in theory, it would take the company about 4.5 years to repay its net debt if it used all of its EBITDA for debt repayment. 

A leverage level of 4.5x is considered high and may be a warning sign for lenders and investors, although what is “too high” depends on the stability of the industry. For stable industries like utilities, 4.5x may be concerning, while for private equity–backed companies it can be more common.

1. Define the metric: The EBITDA/Interest Coverage ratio measures how easily a company can meet its interest obligations using operating cash flow before depreciation, amortization, and taxes. A higher ratio means stronger debt-servicing capacity.

2. Identify the inputs: Only EBITDA and interest expense are needed. Depreciation and taxes are irrelevant here.

• EBITDA = €120m
• Interest expense = €30m

3. Calculate the ratio: Divide EBITDA by interest expense to see the coverage.

This ratio means that the company generates four times its annual interest expense in EBITDA, providing a solid buffer to service debt obligations. 

A coverage level of 4.0x is generally considered healthy and reassuring for lenders and investors, although what is “comfortable” depends on the industry and the company’s risk profile. In stable sectors, lenders may expect even higher coverage, while in cyclical or leveraged situations, 4.0x would still be viewed as strong.

The debt maturity profile shows when debt obligations fall due. It is crucial because even a profitable company may run into liquidity problems if too much debt needs to be repaid or refinanced at once. Lenders use the maturity profile to assess refinancing risk.

Key points to consider:

• Staggered maturities reduce risk by spreading repayments over time.
• Concentrated maturities create refinancing pressure if market conditions are unfavorable.
• Cash flow alignment is important as near-term obligations should be covered by available liquidity or expected inflows.

Clear red flags include:

• A maturity wall, for example €500m of bonds due next year with only €100m in cash and limited cash flow.
• Heavy reliance on short-term debt, exposing the company to frequent refinancing risk.
• Large bullet repayments without amortization, which create refinancing pressure at a single point in time.

The refinancing risk depends on whether the company can cover near-term obligations and whether it has realistic access to refinancing markets.

A step-by-step assessment could look like this:

• Near-term maturity: €200m due next year versus €50m cash. With €150m EBITDA, the company could generate additional liquidity, but repayment in full without refinancing would be challenging.
• Medium-term maturities: €300m in three years is more manageable if cash flows remain stable, but depends on the success of refinancing the first tranche.
• Long-term maturities: €500m in seven years is not an immediate concern and allows time for planning.

Overall, the main issue is the short-term refinancing of €200m. The company will likely need to refinance at least part of this debt. If credit markets are tight or the company has a weak rating, this creates significant refinancing risk.

Credit risk is not only about numbers. Qualitative factors can have a major impact on a company’s ability to service its debt. 

Key considerations include:

• Industry outlook: A company in a declining industry faces more risk than one in a growing market.
• Business model & competitive position: Strong brands, market share, and diversification improve resilience.
• Management quality & governance: Experienced management and transparent governance reduce operational and strategic risks.
• Regulatory and legal environment: Heavy regulation or political risk can affect stability.

These factors matter because they shape the sustainability of cash flows and influence whether lenders believe the company can manage through difficult periods.

Early warning signs can be both quantitative and qualitative, and they often appear before an actual default occurs.

Key red flags include:

• Deteriorating financial ratios, such as rising Net Debt/EBITDA or falling Interest Coverage.
• Declining liquidity, with cash balances falling and reliance on short-term borrowing increasing.
• Frequent covenant breaches or renegotiations, suggesting that the company is struggling to meet lender requirements.
• Delays in supplier payments or stretching payables, which may signal cash shortages.
• Negative qualitative signals, like management turnover, loss of key customers, or worsening industry conditions.

Together, these indicators suggest a weakening credit profile and can prompt lenders to take protective measures.